dota_factory/docs/architecture.md

Architecture

This document captures the architectural decisions for the project. It is a complement to requirements.md; it explains how the game is built, not what it does.

Goals

• Keep the simulation testable with Catch2 in a headless environment.
• Keep game speed (0×–4×) and pause trivial to implement (REQ-UI-SPEED).
• Keep config-driven balancing (formulas, recipes, station and ship stats) fast to iterate on.
• Make the belt subsystem replaceable without touching the rest of the game.
• Let ship behavior grow (hybrid ships, new capabilities) without rewriting existing code.

Simulation / Presentation Split

A strict separation between the game simulation and the Qt Widgets UI.

• The simulation is a pure C++ library that depends only on Qt Core and Qt Gui (QPoint, QVector2D, QRect, etc., as required by the coding guidelines), toml++, and tinyexpr. It contains no QtWidgets, no painting, and no QApplication. Note: in Qt 5, vector math types such as QVector2D live in Qt::Gui rather than Qt::Core, so the lib links both.
• The UI reads simulation state and renders it. It owns all widgets, painting, and input handling, and drives the simulation via a small command interface (place building, deconstruct, clear belt tiles, change recipe, set game speed, etc.).

This split is enforced at the CMake target level (see below). Tests link only against the simulation library and run without a display server.

Fixed-Timestep Tick-Based Simulation

The simulation advances in discrete ticks. All game quantities — production timers, belt item progress, threat accumulation, wave timers, ship cooldowns — are measured in ticks, not wall-clock seconds.

• Tick rate: fixed at 30 Hz; tickDurationMs = 1000 / 30 ≈ 33.33.
• Ticks are driven by an accumulator that is independent of the render rate. Each render frame, the driver adds elapsedWallMs × gameSpeedMultiplier to an accumulator and flushes one tick() per tickDurationMs of accumulated time (so multiple sim ticks may run between frames at high speeds, or a frame may run no ticks at low speeds). gameSpeedMultiplier ∈ {0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4} per REQ-UI-SPEED; 0× freezes the accumulator (pause). The concrete driver lives in the Rendering section.
• Config-level durations given in seconds (recipe durations, wave gap ranges, debris despawn, etc.) are converted to ticks at config-load time.

Consequences: determinism, replayability, and the time-scale feature fall out for free. The simulation advances the same number of ticks over the same amount of game-time regardless of whether the game renders at 60 FPS, 30 FPS, or a stuttery mix.

Config Loading

Config files (world.toml, buildings.toml, recipes.toml, ships.toml, stations.toml) are loaded once at startup.

• toml++ parses the files into strongly-typed config structs.
• Formula strings (e.g., threat accumulation, enemy ship level as a function of t, per-ship stats as functions of level, station stats as functions of generation) are compiled once via tinyexpr at load time and stored as callable objects. They are never re-parsed during simulation.
• Configs are immutable after load. Any formula that fails to parse, or any required field that is missing or malformed, aborts startup with a clear error message — never mid-game.
• The UI layer loads its own TOML file, visuals.toml, using the same toml++-based pattern and the same immutability / fail-fast rule (see Rendering → Visual Parameters). The simulation never reads it.

Coordinate System

See REQ-GW-COORDS for the authoritative tile-coordinate convention. This section captures the programming-level conventions that follow from it.

• Tile coordinates are QPoint(x, y). Origin (0, 0) is the first space tile (just right of the asteroid's right edge at game start). X grows right; Y grows down.
• Asteroid tiles have x < 0. Asteroid left-expansions add tiles at increasingly negative X; the origin never shifts, so existing tile coordinates remain stable across expansions.
• Continuous world positions (ship centers, debris, projectiles) use QVector2D in tile units — one tile = 1.0 world unit. A ship center at QVector2D(-3.5, 4.0) sits at the center of the tile 3.5 tiles left of the asteroid's right edge and 4 tiles down from the top.
• Rendering multiplies world units by the tile size in pixels (20) at draw time.
• Ship position always refers to the ship's center — this is the point used for sensor, attack-range, and hit-detection checks.

Core Types

Simulation types shared across subsystems:

• EntityId — strictly increasing integer handle, allocated centrally by the simulation. Assigned to every targetable entity: ships, debris, and buildings (including HQ and defence stations). Buildings additionally retain their anchor tile for spatial lookups and placement; the EntityId is the canonical reference used by ship-component target fields (Weapon.currentTarget, RepairTool.currentTarget, AttackBehavior.currentTarget, etc.), so a combat ship can target either another ship or a defence station uniformly.
• Rotation — enum { North, East, South, West }. The rotation applied to a building's surface_mask when placed.
• BuildingType — enum covering every building type in requirements.md (Miner, Smelter, Assembler, ReprocessingPlant, Shipyard, SalvageBay, Belt, Splitter, Hq, PlayerDefenceStation, EnemyDefenceStation). Belt and Splitter share the enum for cost, construction, placement, and visuals.toml lookup, but their runtime data lives inside the belt subsystem rather than in Building instances (see Belt Subsystem).
• ItemType — tagged id of every transportable material (ores, ingots, intermediates, building_blocks, scrap).
• Item — struct Item { ItemType type; }. Items on belts have no persistent identity across ticks.
• Port — struct Port { QPoint tile; Rotation direction; }. Identifies a belt-adjacent cell and the direction of flow across that cell.
• MovementIntent — struct MovementIntent { bool active; QVector2D target; }. Written by the winning behavior's executor (see Movement Arbitration). Cleared (active = false) at the start of each tick; tickMovement brakes when inactive, otherwise drives toward target.
• BeamFiredEvent — struct BeamFiredEvent : public Event { BeamKind kind; entt::entity shooter; entt::entity target; Tick emittedAt; }. Transient record emitted each time a weapon fires, a repair tool starts a heal cycle, or a salvage module starts a collection cycle (REQ-SHP-FIRING, REQ-SHP-FIRING-BEAM). BeamKind (Weapon/Repair/Salvage) selects the beam color. Buffered in a sim-owned vector during the tick, then drained and re-emitted via EventManager by the UI frame handler; see Sim → UI Events.
• SchematicChoiceOption — struct SchematicChoiceOption { string schematicId; SchematicType type; string displayName; bool isNewUnlock; int targetLevel; }. Describes one option in the schematic choice dialog (REQ-DEF-SCHEMATIC-DROP). Up to three are generated when an enemy station set is destroyed. SchematicType is Ship, Module, or Recipe.
• SchematicChoicesAvailableEvent — EventManager event carrying a vector<SchematicChoiceOption>. Sent by the UI each frame when pending choices are detected; handled by MainWindow which opens the schematic choice dialog.

Event System

All inter-component communication — both sim→UI and UI→UI — uses a unified EventManager/EventHandler system. No custom Qt signals/slots are used for inter-widget communication.

EventManager

EventManager is a singleton (EventManager::getInstance()) that routes events to registered handlers.

• sendEventImmediately(shared_ptr<Event>) — synchronous dispatch to all handlers of the event's type.
• addEvent(shared_ptr<Event>) — queues the event for later batch processing.
• processEvents() — drains the queue, dispatching each event to its handlers.

The EventManager is thread-safe (mutex-guarded).

EventHandler

EventHandler<T> is a CRTP-style template that a class inherits to receive events of type T. It provides registerForEvent() / unregisterForEvent() and requires an override of handleEvent(shared_ptr<const T>).

CombinedEventHandler<Ts...> is a variadic template for classes that handle multiple event types. It provides registerForEvents() / unregisterForEvents() and requires one handleEvent override per type.

Sim → UI Events

The simulation layer stays free of EventManager — it uses a plain std::vector<BeamFiredEvent> internally (owned by Simulation, filled by the combat, repair, and salvage systems). This preserves determinism, tick-order fidelity, and headless testability (Catch2 tests read the queue directly via drainBeamFiredEvents() after tick()).

The UI frame handler (GameWorldView::onFrame / ArenaView::onFrame) bridges the gap: each frame it calls simulation.drainBeamFiredEvents(), then re-emits each BeamFiredEvent via EventManager::sendEventImmediately(). Subscribers (the same view's handleEvent(BeamFiredEvent)) create ActiveBeam records tracked for 0.3 s of wall time, then discarded. If either the shooter or target entity is gone when the renderer looks them up, the beam is dropped early.

Schematic drops: when an enemy station set is destroyed, the simulation generates up to 3 SchematicChoiceOption entries and stores them as pending state. The UI polls hasSchematicChoicesPending() each frame and, when true, sends a SchematicChoicesAvailableEvent via EventManager. MainWindow handles this event by pausing the game and opening a modal SchematicChoiceDialog. The player's selection is fed back via applySchematicChoice(index).

UI Events

All UI interactions — building selection, builder/blueprint mode transitions, speed changes, deconstruct mode, escape menu, layout dialog requests — are communicated via EventManager events rather than Qt signals/slots. Each event is a small struct inheriting Event (e.g., SelectionChangedEvent, BuildingTypeSelectedEvent, SpeedChangeRequestedEvent). Widgets register as CombinedEventHandler for the events they care about and emit events via EventManager::sendEventImmediately().

Bidirectional interactions use separate request/notification event types to avoid infinite recursion (e.g., ExitBuilderModeRequestedEvent from BuildButtonGrid → GameWorldView, vs. BuilderModeExitedEvent from GameWorldView → BuildButtonGrid).

Reading Simulation State

The simulation is the single source of truth for every game value (building block stock, expansion cost, threat level, tick, etc.). A UI widget that needs such a value holds the Simulation* it was constructed with and pulls the value on demand via the corresponding getter (e.g., m_sim->getBuildingBlocksStock()), rather than caching its own copy.

State-change events (e.g., BuildingBlocksChangedEvent) are treated as refresh signals, not as carriers of truth: a widget subscribes to the event to learn when the value changed and then re-reads it from the simulation to learn what it now is. The value carried in the event payload is not authoritative and should not be stored. This keeps a single copy of each value and avoids stale-cache bugs (a widget acting on a value that has since moved on because nothing refreshed its local copy).

Tick Order

Within a single simulation tick, subsystems run in this fixed order. The order is load-bearing for determinism and for avoiding one-tick-delay artifacts (e.g., items landing on a belt but not advancing in the same tick).

1. Wave scheduler — advance wave timer; on trigger, compute wave composition per REQ-WAV-TRIGGER and schedule spawn times across REQ-WAV-SPAWN-DURATION; spawn any enemy ships whose scheduled time has arrived this tick.
2. Threat accumulation — add max(0, threat_rate_formula(t)) × tick_dt to threat level (REQ-WAV-THREAT-RATE).
3. Belt → building pull — buildings drain eligible items from adjacent belt tiles into per-material input buffers (REQ-MAT-INPUT-PORTS).
4. Building production — advance production timers; start new cycles when inputs and output-buffer space permit (REQ-MAT-CYCLE); on completion, deposit output.
5. Building → belt push — buildings push items from output buffer onto the belt tile at their output port (REQ-MAT-OUTPUT-PORT).
6. Belt tick — advance items along belt tiles; apply splitter routing (REQ-BLD-SPLITTER).
7. Ship behavior systems — clear MovementIntent on each ship, then the AiSystem runs three batched phases: every behavior evaluator scores its behavior and sets its target data; a selection pass records the highest-scoring behavior per ship in SelectedBehaviorComponent; each behavior executor runs for the winner, writing MovementIntent and preferred module targets. The module systems then perform world mutation: SalvagerSystem (scrap collection/delivery) and RepairSystem (healing). See Movement Arbitration.
8. Combat resolution — ships and defence stations validate/acquire targets, fire, apply damage; queue deaths. Each fire appends a BeamFiredEvent to the sim's beam-fired-event queue (REQ-SHP-FIRING-BEAM). The repair and salvage module systems (tick step 7d) append their own BeamFiredEvents to the same queue when they start a cycle.
9. Deaths & loot — process queued deaths: drop debris (REQ-RES-DEBRIS-DROP); if a full enemy-defence-station set was destroyed this tick, generate up to 3 schematic choice options (REQ-DEF-SCHEMATIC-DROP) stored as pending state for the UI to present; remove entities.
10. tickMovement — advance ship positions based on final MovementIntent.
11. Debris despawn — decrement debris timers; remove expired debris (REQ-RES-DEBRIS-DROP).

CMake Target Layout

Three product targets plus tests:

• lib/ — simulation + config. Depends on Qt Core + Qt Gui, toml++, tinyexpr. No QtWidgets.
• ui/ — QtWidgets + QOpenGLWidget code: header bar, game world view, selected building panel, build button grid. Depends on lib and on Qt's OpenGL widgets module.
• app/ — thin main() that creates the simulation, the UI, and wires them together. Depends on ui.
• tests/ — Catch2 tests. Links only against lib.

Directory discipline inside lib/ keeps the internal sim/config seam clear; sim code must not reach into config parsing and vice versa.

Belt Subsystem

Belts and splitters are their own specialized subsystem. Belt items are not entities — they are transient data flowing through the belt representation. They do not have identities that persist across ticks.

Public Interface

BeltSystem.h is authoritative. The surface is wider than the original design sketch — 15 public methods in five groups, not the 5-method port interface this section used to describe:

class BeltSystem {
public:
    // Placement — belts/splitters/tunnels are Buildings for cost and
    // construction, so BuildingSystem registers and unregisters their tiles.
    void placeBelt(QPoint tile, Rotation direction);
    void placeTunnelEntry(QPoint tile, Rotation direction, int maxDistance);
    void placeTunnelExit(QPoint tile, Rotation direction);
    void placeSplitter(QPoint tile, Rotation outputA, Rotation outputB);
    void removeTile(QPoint tile);

    // Splitter filter configuration (REQ-BLD-SPLITTER). A splitter's filters
    // live here, not on Building, so callers that re-register a tile must
    // carry them across (see BuildingSystem::reregisterBeltTile).
    void setSplitterFilters(QPoint tile, const std::vector<ItemType>& filterA,
                                         const std::vector<ItemType>& filterB);
    std::optional<SplitterInfo> getSplitterInfo(QPoint tile) const;

    // Port interface (buildings <-> belts)
    bool tryPutItem(QPoint tile, Item item, Rotation fromDir = Rotation::West);
    std::optional<Item>     tryTakeItem(Port port);
    std::optional<ItemType> peekItem(Port port) const;
    double getProgressPerTick_tpt() const;   // shared so building output items
                                             // travel at belt speed (REQ-MAT-OUTPUT-EMERGE)

    // Maintenance
    void clearTiles(const std::vector<QPoint>& tiles);   // REQ-UI-BELT-CLEAR
    void tick();

    // Rendering
    void forEachVisualItem(QRect viewportTiles,
                           std::function<void(VisualItem)> visit) const;

    // Determinism (docs/replay_design.md)
    void appendChecksum(Hasher& hasher) const;
};

struct VisualItem {
    ItemType type;
    QPointF worldPos;   // in tile units, fractional
};

Item transport is still reached only through push and pull: tryPutItem / tryTakeItem move items, peekItem reveals the leading item's type but never an identity, and rendering reads only through forEachVisualItem. The growth is in tile topology — placement, removal and splitter filters — which BuildingSystem drives because belts are Buildings for cost, construction and deconstruction. That coupling is real and is not going away.

Implementation Strategy

• v1: per-tile representation. Each belt tile stores up to 2 items with a progress value in [0, 1] along the tile's belt direction. Sufficient for the scale this game targets.
• v2 (optional, only if v1 profiles poorly): Factorio-style belt-segment compression. The migration argument still holds for the item representation, since no method exposes tile-level item identity — but a v2 would have to keep the placement and splitter-filter methods working per tile, which is a stronger constraint than this section originally implied.

Rendering Note

Rendering does not cache item identities across frames. Each frame calls forEachVisualItem and paints whatever it yields. This is correct because items can merge onto the same tile, splitters can reroute, and clearTiles wipes items without warning.

If a smoother animation than the tick rate is ever needed, tick interpolation can be added inside forEachVisualItem later. Not needed initially.

Buildings

Buildings are plain structs with a fixed type determined at construction.

struct Building {
    EntityId id;
    QPoint tile;
    QSize footprint;
    Rotation rotation;
    BuildingType type;
    float hp;           // relevant for HQ and defence stations; ignored otherwise.
    float maxHp;
    InputBuffer inputBuffer;
    OutputBuffer outputBuffer;
    // Production timer, the recipe currently running, and — for reprocessing
    // plants — the output item picked at cycle start (REQ-MAT-CYCLE).
    std::optional<Production> production;
};

• The uniform "input buffer → production timer → output buffer" pattern across miner, smelter, assembler, reprocessing plant, and shipyard is driven by the recipe config, not by a class hierarchy.
• Belts and splitters are separate types owned by the belt subsystem, not general Building instances.
• No ECS for buildings. A miner is never also an assembler; there is no composition benefit to decomposing buildings into components.

Debris

Debris — the salvageable object dropped by destroyed ships and defence stations — is the only non-ship, non-building entity in the simulation. Each piece carries a scrap amount:

struct Debris {
    EntityId id;
    QVector2D position;     // world units, tile-fractional; ship-center convention
    int amount;             // scrap the piece still holds
    Tick despawnAt;         // absolute tick at which the debris is removed
};

Created in tick step 9 (Deaths & loot) per REQ-RES-DEBRIS-DROP, drained one scrap per cycle by salvage ships in tick step 7 (SalvagerSystem), and removed in tick step 11 when the current tick reaches despawnAt.

Ships

Ships follow a component-composition model using std::optional<Component> members. Each orthogonal capability is a component; each behavior is also a component, ticked by its own system. A ship's "role" is just which components it has — not a class or an enum.

Capability Components

struct Weapon       { float damage; float range; float fireRateHz; float cooldownTicks;
                      std::optional<EntityId> currentTarget; };
struct SalvageCargo { int capacity; int current; };
struct RepairTool   { float repairAmountHp; int repairIntervalTicks; int cooldownTicksRemaining;
                      float range; std::optional<EntityId> currentTarget; };

Behavior Components

Behaviors are decomposed, not bundled into per-role monolithic AIs. This is the critical modeling choice: adding a capability (e.g., putting a Weapon on a repair ship) must not require rewriting AI code. Each behavior is a small component carrying its own target data plus a float score written by its evaluator each tick.

struct AdvanceBehavior      { float score; };                                   // baseline fallback, all ships
struct RallyBehavior        { QVector2D rallyPoint; float score; };             // player combat ships
struct RetreatBehavior      { float retreatHpFraction; QVector2D retreatPoint;  // player ships
                              float score; };
struct AttackBehavior       { std::optional<EntityId> currentTarget; float score; };
struct RepairBehavior       { std::optional<EntityId> currentTarget;
                              float maxRepairRange_tiles; float score; };
struct SalvageScrapBehavior { std::optional<QVector2D> debrisTarget;
                              float maxCollectionRange_tiles; float score; };
struct DeliverScrapBehavior { BuildingId deliveryBay; float score; };
struct SelectedBehaviorComponent { BehaviorKind winner; float bestScore; };     // selection result

Ship

struct Ship {
    EntityId id;
    QVector2D position;
    QVector2D velocity;
    float hp;
    float maxHp;
    int level;
    ShipSchematicId schematic;

    // Capabilities
    std::optional<Weapon>       weapon;
    std::optional<SalvageCargo> cargo;
    std::optional<RepairTool>   repairTool;

    // Behaviors (attached per capability; AdvanceBehavior + SelectedBehaviorComponent
    // on every ship, RetreatBehavior on player ships, etc.)
    std::optional<AttackBehavior>       attackBehavior;
    std::optional<SalvageScrapBehavior> salvageScrapBehavior;
    std::optional<DeliverScrapBehavior> deliverScrapBehavior;
    std::optional<RepairBehavior>       repairBehavior;

    // Written by the winning behavior's executor, read by movement.
    MovementIntent intent;
};

Systems

Each behavior is split into a stateless evaluator and executor class (one per behavior, e.g. AttackEvaluator/AttackExecutor), orchestrated by AiSystem. Evaluators and executors only read/write behavior components and module target fields — they never mutate the game world. World mutation lives in dedicated module systems that run every tick, independent of which behavior won:

• CombatSystem — validates each weapon's executor-set target, falls back to nearest-target acquisition, fires, applies damage.
• SalvagerSystem — collects scrap into cargo and delivers full cargo at a SalvageBay.
• RepairSystem — validates each repair tool's target, falls back to nearest damaged friendly, applies healing.
• MovementIntentSystem (tickMovement) — reads MovementIntent, advances position; brakes when inactive.

Movement Arbitration

Arbitration is score-based, not fixed-priority. In a single tick AiSystem runs three phases:

1. Evaluate — every behavior's evaluator iterates the ships that have its component, sets its target data, and writes a float score (see BehaviorScores.h). An evaluator returns an inactive score when its behavior does not apply.
2. Select — selectWinningBehaviors resets each SelectedBehaviorComponent, then compares every behavior's score per ship, recording the highest as winner. Behaviors are considered highest-band first so a strict > breaks ties toward the more urgent behavior.
3. Execute — each behavior's executor runs only for ships where it is the winner, writing the single MovementIntent and any preferred module targets.

AdvanceBehavior is present on every ship with the lowest score, guaranteeing a winner. The resulting band order:

Retreat > Attack / Repair / SalvageScrap / DeliverScrap > Rally > Advance

MovementIntent is cleared (inactive) at the start of each tick; tickMovement runs last.

Why Not ECS

EnTT would be a reasonable fit for ships specifically, but at the scale of this game (low hundreds of ships) the iteration-speed benefit is not decisive. The std::optional<Component> pattern gives the same modeling expressiveness with zero dependencies and no learning curve. Migration to EnTT is mechanical (std::optional<Weapon> weapon becomes registry.emplace<Weapon>(entity, ...)) if it ever becomes warranted.

Buildings and the belt subsystem stay outside any entity model regardless of what ships do — they are the wrong shape for ECS.

Rendering

The game world is rendered by a single GameWorldView widget that inherits QOpenGLWidget and uses QPainter for all drawing. This gives the same imperative paint API as a plain QWidget with GPU acceleration, comfortably handling the expected scale (hundreds of ships, thousands of belt items) without blocking the main thread on CPU rasterization.

Render Loop

• A QTimer in GameWorldView fires at 60 Hz and calls update(), requesting a repaint. Render rate is fixed at 60 FPS regardless of game speed.
• The sim advances independently via an accumulator-based driver:
  • Each frame, compute accumulator += elapsedWallMs * gameSpeedMultiplier.
  • While accumulator >= tickDurationMs (= 1000/30 ≈ 33.33 ms), advance the sim by one tick and subtract.
  • 0× clamps the multiplier to 0 (pause). 0.5× / 2× / 4× scale accumulation directly.
• This decouples render rate (60 FPS) from sim rate (30 Hz, see Fixed-Timestep Tick-Based Simulation above) and keeps all game speeds correct across variable frame timing.

Threading

Sim and UI run on the same thread for v1. paintEvent reads sim state directly without locks. If profiling later justifies moving the sim to a worker thread, the pull-style drainBeamFiredEvents() / getPendingSchematicChoices() / applySchematicChoice() / forEachVisualItem() APIs already support a clean snapshot-and-render split; a single mutex at the sim boundary would suffice. The ArenaSimulation used by the balancing tool runs headlessly on a worker thread; fire events accumulate in its internal vector and are only drained when ArenaView drives tickOnce() on the main thread during interactive inspection.

Layer Order (back to front)

1. Tile background — asteroid tiles and space tiles within the viewport.
2. Buildings — factory buildings, HQ, player and enemy defence stations.
3. Belt items — 10×10 colored squares emitted by BeltSystem::forEachVisualItem.
4. Scrap — glyphs at world positions.
5. Ships — colored arrows oriented by velocity; color keyed to role (player combat / salvage / repair / enemy).
6. Laser beams — lines derived from live BeamFiredEvents kept by the renderer for 0.3 s, colored per BeamKind (weapon/repair/salvage) (REQ-SHP-FIRING-BEAM).
7. Build overlays — ghost in builder mode (REQ-BLD-GHOST), deconstruct-mode tint, tile highlight under cursor, box-drag selection rectangle.
8. Screen-space UI — screen-anchored elements, drawn after resetting the world-space transform.

Coordinates and Scrolling

• The horizontal view position lives in WorldCamera (lib/core/) as a continuous view-center X in tiles. A / D input pans it smoothly (REQ-UI-SCROLL) at a position-dependent speed (REQ-UI-SCROLL-SPEED). The camera works purely in world units — tiles and tiles/second, never pixels — which is what keeps it independent of WorldCoordinates; the two meet only where GameWorldView feeds getViewCenterXTiles() into the transform.
• The camera takes no simulation dependency. Its pan limits move with asteroid expansion and with pushes, so GameWorldView reads them from the sim each frame and passes them in as ScrollBounds; the camera clamps on every advance(), not only when panning, so the view follows the bounds inward when they shrink. Pan intent is likewise passed in as a PanDirection rather than read from key state, so the camera is unaffected if controls later become rebindable. Both properties are what make it a plain value with unit tests (WorldCameraTest) — notably over the two-ramp pan-speed curve, whose overlapping-band and zero-width-band cases are otherwise easy to break unnoticed.
• The world↔widget transform itself lives in WorldCoordinates (lib/core/), not in the view. It is an immutable value, built through one of two named factories that differ only in how tilePx and the left edge are derived; everything downstream is shared. scrolling(...) is the game world: tilePx makes the world height fill the viewport (REQ-GW-TILE-SIZE) and the view pans horizontally. fitToWorld(...) is the balancing tool's arena: a fixed world shown whole, so tilePx is the tighter of the two axis fits and there is no scroll. Being a plain value with no Qt Widgets dependency, it is unit-tested (WorldCoordinatesTest) even though the widgets around it are not.
• GameWorldView::getCoordinates() and ArenaView::getCoordinates() each build one per frame in paintGL and per event in the mouse handlers, and pass it down: every world-space draw<X> takes a const WorldCoordinates&, while the screen-space draws (vignette borders, replay overlay, debug text) take none. The snapshot is deliberately never cached in a member — a resize or a scroll would silently invalidate it.
• Conversions are per-call arithmetic rather than a painter.translate, because hit-testing needs the inverse (widgetToWorld / widgetToTile, flooring for a tile) as often as drawing needs the forward direction. Asteroid tiles (x < 0) need no special casing — they share the coordinate system with space tiles, which is why the flooring must not be truncation.

Culling

The renderer iterates only entities and tiles whose world X lies within the visible viewport. In particular, everything at or past the rightmost enemy defence station (i.e., the current enemy buffer zone) is culled — consistent with REQ-GW-SCROLL-LIMIT.

Visual Parameters

Shapes are hardcoded in the renderer — a building is a rectangle per footprint tile, a ship is an oriented arrow/triangle, a belt item is a 10×10 square, scrap is a small circle, a beam is a line. These structural choices live in the draw<X>(painter, entity) functions of the UI and are not expected to change frequently.

The few shapes the game view and the balancing tool's arena view draw identically — the ship body, the health bar, the debris marker, the sensor-range circle — live in ui/WorldPrimitives as free functions over explicit values. The arena exists to eyeball combat, so it only works while a ship there looks like a ship in the game; keeping these in one place means a retuned ship shape cannot silently stop applying to the tool that measures it. The balancing target does not link the ui library, so it compiles that file into itself, the same way it already does for VisualsLoader and ShipStatsPanel (see balancing/CMakeLists.txt). Everything the two views draw differently — selection highlights, beams, target lines, and all of the factory — stays with each view; the shared set is deliberately not grown beyond shapes that are genuinely the same.

Colors, outline widths, glyph text, and tile tints live in a separate config file, visuals.toml, loaded once by the UI at startup using the same pattern and lifetime as the sim config files (see Config Loading). The file is UI-scoped: the sim does not read it and does not depend on it.

Sketch of visuals.toml:

[tiles]
asteroid = { fill = "#4a4038" }
space    = { fill = "#0a0a15" }

[buildings.miner]
fill    = "#6b4a2c"
outline = "#ffffff"
glyph   = "M"

# ... one [buildings.<type>] section per BuildingType
# ... one [stations.<player|enemy>] section
# ... one [items.<item_type>] section per ItemType

[ships.player_combat] { fill = "#3366ff", outline = "#ffffff" }
[ships.salvage]       { fill = "#33cc66", outline = "#ffffff" }
[ships.repair]        { fill = "#66ccff", outline = "#ffffff" }
[ships.enemy]         { fill = "#cc3333", outline = "#ffffff" }

[beams]
color    = "#ff6600"
width_px = 2

[overlays]
ghost_valid    = "#ffffff44"
ghost_invalid  = "#ff000044"
deconstruct_tint  = "#ff000033"
selection_rect = "#00ff00"

[toast]
bg        = "#000000cc"
fg        = "#ffffff"
font_size = 14

Key names mirror sim identifiers (buildings.miner ↔ BuildingType::Miner, items.<x> ↔ ItemType). The UI builds a lookup indexed by the sim's enum or string id; a missing or malformed entry aborts startup with a clear error, same as sim configs. Adding a new BuildingType or ItemType to the sim requires adding a matching visuals.toml entry — the fail-on-missing rule catches the omission at startup rather than silently rendering invisible entities.

Animation

v1 uses no sprite atlases, no anti-aliasing, and no tick-to-tick interpolation (ships snap to their 30 Hz positions). This is not an architectural constraint — sprite atlases, AA, and interpolation are all incremental upgrades behind the same draw<X> functions and the visuals.toml schema.

Testing

• Catch2 tests link against lib only. No QApplication, no display.
• The tick-based, deterministic simulation is directly testable: construct a world, step N ticks, assert state.
• Config loading is tested with small fixture TOML files.
• Formula parsing failures must be covered (malformed input produces a clear error, does not silently default).