Use std::optional instead of sentinel values for absent data

Replace sentinel values that signalled "no value" with std::optional across simulation, UI, and balancing code: - BuildingId references: DeliverScrapBehavior::deliveryBay, Simulation::m_hqBuildingId, the return types of BuildingSystem::place and Simulation::tryPlaceBuilding (previously kInvalidBuildingId on failure), GameWorldView building/site-at-tile lookups and demolish hover, SelectedBuildingPanel::m_singleBuildingId. - Command id fields: the five id-carrying commands now hold optional<BuildingId>; CommandSerializer and Simulation::apply updated. The serialized replay format is unchanged. - Index sentinels: BlueprintPanel::m_activeIndex, BalancingWindow::m_inspectedArenaIndex, ArenaSimulation winnerTeam, and the moduleIndex grid cells in ShipLayoutDialog/ShipLayoutPreview. ShipLayoutDialog::m_activeModuleIndex was a tri-state, so it is modelled as bool m_removeMode + optional<int>. Building/ConstructionSite id defaults keep kInvalidBuildingId (identity, not an absent reference); entt::null and config -1 domain values are left as-is. Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.8 <noreply@anthropic.com> Claude-Session: https://claude.ai/code/session_01Y7N59FsLA5e2kuVdqe4Uhc
2026-07-20 07:36:34 +02:00
parent b708e1b29d
commit 388d354e51
32 changed files with 228 additions and 209 deletions
--- a/src/balancing/ArenaSimulation.cpp
+++ b/src/balancing/ArenaSimulation.cpp
@@ -44,7 +44,6 @@ ArenaSimulation::ArenaSimulation(const GameConfig& gameConfig,
    , m_team1HqEntity(entt::null)
    , m_team2HqEntity(entt::null)
    , m_finished(false)
-    , m_winnerTeam(-1)
    , m_stopRequested(false)
 {
    m_buildingSystem = std::make_unique<BuildingSystem>(
@@ -473,7 +472,7 @@ bool ArenaSimulation::isFinished() const
    return m_finished;
 }

-int ArenaSimulation::getWinnerTeam() const
+std::optional<int> ArenaSimulation::getWinnerTeam() const
 {
    return m_winnerTeam;
 }
--- a/src/balancing/ArenaSimulation.h
+++ b/src/balancing/ArenaSimulation.h
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ struct ArenaStatus

    TeamStatus teams[2];
    bool finished = false;
-    int winnerTeam = -1;  // 0 or 1 when finished; -1 while running
+    std::optional<int> winnerTeam;  // 0 or 1 when finished; nullopt while running
    // Game time the fight has lasted (simulated ticks * fixed tick duration).
    // Meaningful once finished; the battle duration shown for completed runs.
    double durationSeconds = 0.0;
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ public:

    ArenaStatus getStatus() const;
    bool isFinished() const;
-    int getWinnerTeam() const;
+    std::optional<int> getWinnerTeam() const;
    Tick getCurrentTick() const;

    const ArenaConfig& getArenaConfig() const;
@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ private:
    entt::entity m_team2HqEntity;

    bool m_finished;
-    int m_winnerTeam;
+    std::optional<int> m_winnerTeam;
    std::atomic<bool> m_stopRequested;

    // Static accumulated threat per team, computed once from the configured roster.
--- a/src/balancing/BalancingWindow.cpp
+++ b/src/balancing/BalancingWindow.cpp
@@ -76,7 +76,6 @@ BalancingWindow::BalancingWindow(const BalancingConfig& balancingConfig,
    , m_balancingConfigPath(balancingConfigPath)
    , m_nextSeed(0)
    , m_inspectWindow(nullptr)
-    , m_inspectedArenaIndex(-1)
 {
    m_visuals = VisualsLoader::load(m_configDir + "/visuals.toml");
    setWindowTitle(tr("DotaFactory — Balancing Tool"));
@@ -184,10 +183,10 @@ void BalancingWindow::pollStatuses()
        }
    }

-    if (m_inspectedSim && m_inspectedArenaIndex >= 0)
+    if (m_inspectedSim && m_inspectedArenaIndex.has_value())
    {
        const ArenaStatus status = m_inspectedSim->getStatus();
-        m_arenas[static_cast<std::size_t>(m_inspectedArenaIndex)].widget->updateStatus(status);
+        m_arenas[static_cast<std::size_t>(*m_inspectedArenaIndex)].widget->updateStatus(status);
    }

    updateButtons();
@@ -255,13 +254,13 @@ void BalancingWindow::inspectArena(int index)
        delete m_inspectWindow;
        m_inspectWindow = nullptr;

-        if (m_inspectedSim && m_inspectedArenaIndex >= 0
+        if (m_inspectedSim && m_inspectedArenaIndex.has_value()
            && !m_inspectedSim->isFinished())
        {
-            m_arenas[static_cast<std::size_t>(m_inspectedArenaIndex)].widget->resetToGrey();
+            m_arenas[static_cast<std::size_t>(*m_inspectedArenaIndex)].widget->resetToGrey();
        }
        m_inspectedSim.reset();
-        m_inspectedArenaIndex = -1;
+        m_inspectedArenaIndex = std::nullopt;
    }

    ArenaEntry& entry = m_arenas[static_cast<std::size_t>(index)];
@@ -297,16 +296,16 @@ void BalancingWindow::closeInspectWindow()
    m_inspectWindow->deleteLater();
    m_inspectWindow = nullptr;

-    if (m_inspectedArenaIndex >= 0 && m_inspectedSim)
+    if (m_inspectedArenaIndex.has_value() && m_inspectedSim)
    {
        if (!m_inspectedSim->isFinished())
        {
-            m_arenas[static_cast<std::size_t>(m_inspectedArenaIndex)].widget->resetToGrey();
+            m_arenas[static_cast<std::size_t>(*m_inspectedArenaIndex)].widget->resetToGrey();
        }
    }

    m_inspectedSim.reset();
-    m_inspectedArenaIndex = -1;
+    m_inspectedArenaIndex = std::nullopt;
    setMainControlsEnabled(true);
    updateButtons();
 }
--- a/src/balancing/BalancingWindow.h
+++ b/src/balancing/BalancingWindow.h
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 #pragma once

 #include <memory>
+#include <optional>
 #include <string>
 #include <thread>
 #include <vector>
@@ -78,6 +79,6 @@ private:
    QTimer* m_pollTimer;

    InspectWindow* m_inspectWindow;
-    int m_inspectedArenaIndex;
+    std::optional<int> m_inspectedArenaIndex;  // nullopt = no arena inspected
    std::unique_ptr<ArenaSimulation> m_inspectedSim;
 };
--- a/src/lib/ecs/component/DeliverScrapBehavior.h
+++ b/src/lib/ecs/component/DeliverScrapBehavior.h
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 #pragma once

+#include <optional>
+
 #include "BuildingId.h"

 // Deliver-scrap behavior (one half of the old SalvageBehaviorComponent). Scored
@@ -7,6 +9,6 @@
 // SalvagerSystem performs the actual delivery.
 struct DeliverScrapBehavior
 {
-    BuildingId deliveryBay = kInvalidBuildingId;
-    float      score = 0.0f;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> deliveryBay;  // nullopt until a bay is assigned
+    float                     score = 0.0f;
 };
--- a/src/lib/ecs/system/SalvagerSystem.cpp
+++ b/src/lib/ecs/system/SalvagerSystem.cpp
@@ -88,8 +88,8 @@ void SalvagerSystem::tick(Tick currentTick, ScrapSystem& scraps, BuildingSystem&
    m_admin.forEach<DeliverScrapBehavior, PositionComponent>(
        [&](entt::entity ship, const DeliverScrapBehavior& deliver, const PositionComponent& pos)
        {
-            if (deliver.deliveryBay == kInvalidBuildingId) { return; }
-            const Building* bay = buildings.findBuilding(deliver.deliveryBay);
+            if (!deliver.deliveryBay.has_value()) { return; }
+            const Building* bay = buildings.findBuilding(*deliver.deliveryBay);
            if (!bay) { return; }

            const QVector2D bayCenter(bay->anchor.x() + bay->footprint.width()  / 2.0f,
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ void SalvagerSystem::tick(Tick currentTick, ScrapSystem& scraps, BuildingSystem&
            if (!m_admin.hasAll<CargoComponent>(ship)) { return; }
            CargoComponent& cargo = m_admin.get<CargoComponent>(ship);
            if (cargo.current <= 0) { return; }
-            if (buildings.deliverScrapToSalvageBay(deliver.deliveryBay))
+            if (buildings.deliverScrapToSalvageBay(*deliver.deliveryBay))
            {
                --cargo.current;
            }
--- a/src/lib/ecs/system/ShipSystem.cpp
+++ b/src/lib/ecs/system/ShipSystem.cpp
@@ -398,8 +398,7 @@ entt::entity ShipSystem::spawn(const std::string& schematicId,
            maxCollRange * static_cast<float>(m_config.world.orbitFactor);
        m_admin.addComponent<SalvageScrapBehavior>(entity, salvage);

-        DeliverScrapBehavior deliver;
-        deliver.deliveryBay = kInvalidBuildingId;
+        DeliverScrapBehavior deliver;  // deliveryBay starts unassigned (nullopt)
        m_admin.addComponent<DeliverScrapBehavior>(entity, deliver);
    }

--- a/src/lib/ecs/system/ai/DeliverScrapEvaluator.cpp
+++ b/src/lib/ecs/system/ai/DeliverScrapEvaluator.cpp
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ void DeliverScrapEvaluator::evaluate(EntityAdmin& admin, const BuildingSystem& b
            }

            // Assign nearest SalvageBay if not yet assigned.
-            if (deliver.deliveryBay == kInvalidBuildingId)
+            if (!deliver.deliveryBay.has_value())
            {
                const Building* bay =
                    buildings.findNearestBuilding(pos.value, BuildingType::SalvageBay);
--- a/src/lib/ecs/system/ai/DeliverScrapExecutor.cpp
+++ b/src/lib/ecs/system/ai/DeliverScrapExecutor.cpp
@@ -24,9 +24,9 @@ void DeliverScrapExecutor::execute(EntityAdmin& admin, const BuildingSystem& bui
            if (selected.winner != BehaviorKind::DeliverScrap) { return; }

            QVector2D dest = pos.value;
-            if (deliver.deliveryBay != kInvalidBuildingId)
+            if (deliver.deliveryBay.has_value())
            {
-                const Building* bay = buildings.findBuilding(deliver.deliveryBay);
+                const Building* bay = buildings.findBuilding(*deliver.deliveryBay);
                if (bay)
                {
                    dest = QVector2D(bay->anchor.x() + bay->footprint.width()  / 2.0f,
--- a/src/lib/sim/BuildingSystem.cpp
+++ b/src/lib/sim/BuildingSystem.cpp
@@ -346,7 +346,7 @@ std::vector<Item> BuildingSystem::rollReprocessingOutput(const RecipeDef& recipe
 // Placement
 // ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

-BuildingId BuildingSystem::place(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor,
+std::optional<BuildingId> BuildingSystem::place(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor,
                                Rotation rotation, Tick currentTick)
 {
    const BuildingDef* def = findBuildingDef(type);
@@ -356,7 +356,7 @@ BuildingId BuildingSystem::place(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor,
    // Reject placements that fall outside the world (REQ-BLD-PLACE-VALID).
    if (!bodyCellsWithinWorldBounds(mask.bodyCells, anchor))
    {
-        return kInvalidBuildingId;
+        return std::nullopt;
    }

    const BuildingId id = m_allocateBuildingId();
--- a/src/lib/sim/BuildingSystem.h
+++ b/src/lib/sim/BuildingSystem.h
@@ -43,13 +43,13 @@ public:
                   std::mt19937& rng);

    // -- Placement / demolish ------------------------------------------------
-    // Returns the new entity id, or kInvalidBuildingId if the placement falls
-    // outside the world bounds (vertical extent and asteroid left edge).  Belt
-    // and Splitter register with BeltSystem directly; other types enter the
-    // construction queue.  Terrain type (A vs S) is NOT checked here so that
-    // tests can stage arbitrary layouts; the player-facing entry point
+    // Returns the new entity id, or nullopt if the placement falls outside the
+    // world bounds (vertical extent and asteroid left edge).  Belt and Splitter
+    // register with BeltSystem directly; other types enter the construction
+    // queue.  Terrain type (A vs S) is NOT checked here so that tests can stage
+    // arbitrary layouts; the player-facing entry point
    // (Simulation::tryPlaceBuilding) enforces the full rule via isPlacementValid.
-    BuildingId place(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor, Rotation rotation,
+    std::optional<BuildingId> place(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor, Rotation rotation,
                   Tick currentTick);

    // Returns true if the placement satisfies REQ-BLD-PLACE-VALID terrain and
--- a/src/lib/sim/Command.h
+++ b/src/lib/sim/Command.h
@@ -75,28 +75,28 @@ struct PlaceBuildingCommand : Command
 struct DemolishCommand : Command
 {
    DemolishCommand() : Command(CommandKind::Demolish) {}
-    BuildingId id = kInvalidBuildingId;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> id;
 };

 struct RotateInPlaceCommand : Command
 {
    RotateInPlaceCommand() : Command(CommandKind::RotateInPlace) {}
-    BuildingId id          = kInvalidBuildingId;
-    Rotation   newRotation = Rotation::East;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> id;
+    Rotation                  newRotation = Rotation::East;
 };

 struct SetRecipeCommand : Command
 {
    SetRecipeCommand() : Command(CommandKind::SetRecipe) {}
-    BuildingId  id = kInvalidBuildingId;
-    std::string recipeId;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> id;
+    std::string               recipeId;
 };

 struct SetShipLayoutCommand : Command
 {
    SetShipLayoutCommand() : Command(CommandKind::SetShipLayout) {}
-    BuildingId       id = kInvalidBuildingId;
-    ShipLayoutConfig layout;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> id;
+    ShipLayoutConfig          layout;
 };

 // Splitter filters for a queued / under-construction Splitter site (configured by
@@ -104,8 +104,8 @@ struct SetShipLayoutCommand : Command
 struct SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand : Command
 {
    SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand() : Command(CommandKind::SetSiteSplitterFilters) {}
-    BuildingId            id = kInvalidBuildingId;
-    std::vector<ItemType> filterA;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> id;
+    std::vector<ItemType>     filterA;
    std::vector<ItemType> filterB;
 };

--- a/src/lib/sim/CommandSerializer.cpp
+++ b/src/lib/sim/CommandSerializer.cpp
@@ -129,24 +129,24 @@ std::string serializeCommand(const Command& command)
        break;
    }
    case CommandKind::Demolish:
-        out << "demolish " << static_cast<const DemolishCommand&>(command).id;
+        out << "demolish " << static_cast<const DemolishCommand&>(command).id.value();
        break;
    case CommandKind::RotateInPlace:
    {
        const RotateInPlaceCommand& c = static_cast<const RotateInPlaceCommand&>(command);
-        out << "rotate " << c.id << ' ' << rotationToChar(c.newRotation);
+        out << "rotate " << c.id.value() << ' ' << rotationToChar(c.newRotation);
        break;
    }
    case CommandKind::SetRecipe:
    {
        const SetRecipeCommand& c = static_cast<const SetRecipeCommand&>(command);
-        out << "setrecipe " << c.id << ' ' << c.recipeId;
+        out << "setrecipe " << c.id.value() << ' ' << c.recipeId;
        break;
    }
    case CommandKind::SetShipLayout:
    {
        const SetShipLayoutCommand& c = static_cast<const SetShipLayoutCommand&>(command);
-        out << "setlayout " << c.id << ' ';
+        out << "setlayout " << c.id.value() << ' ';
        appendLayout(out, c.layout);
        break;
    }
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ std::string serializeCommand(const Command& command)
    {
        const SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand& c =
            static_cast<const SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand&>(command);
-        out << "sitefilters " << c.id << ' ';
+        out << "sitefilters " << c.id.value() << ' ';
        appendFilters(out, c.filterA, c.filterB);
        break;
    }
@@ -242,27 +242,35 @@ std::shared_ptr<Command> parseCommand(const std::string& tokens)
    if (verb == "demolish")
    {
        std::shared_ptr<DemolishCommand> c = std::make_shared<DemolishCommand>();
-        if (!(in >> c->id)) { return nullptr; }
+        BuildingId id = 0;
+        if (!(in >> id)) { return nullptr; }
+        c->id = id;
        return c;
    }
    if (verb == "rotate")
    {
        std::shared_ptr<RotateInPlaceCommand> c = std::make_shared<RotateInPlaceCommand>();
        std::string rotToken;
-        if (!(in >> c->id >> rotToken)) { return nullptr; }
+        BuildingId id = 0;
+        if (!(in >> id >> rotToken)) { return nullptr; }
+        c->id = id;
        c->newRotation = rotationFromString(rotToken);
        return c;
    }
    if (verb == "setrecipe")
    {
        std::shared_ptr<SetRecipeCommand> c = std::make_shared<SetRecipeCommand>();
-        if (!(in >> c->id >> c->recipeId)) { return nullptr; }
+        BuildingId id = 0;
+        if (!(in >> id >> c->recipeId)) { return nullptr; }
+        c->id = id;
        return c;
    }
    if (verb == "setlayout")
    {
        std::shared_ptr<SetShipLayoutCommand> c = std::make_shared<SetShipLayoutCommand>();
-        if (!(in >> c->id)) { return nullptr; }
+        BuildingId id = 0;
+        if (!(in >> id)) { return nullptr; }
+        c->id = id;
        c->layout = parseLayout(in, ok);
        if (!ok) { return nullptr; }
        return c;
@@ -271,7 +279,9 @@ std::shared_ptr<Command> parseCommand(const std::string& tokens)
    {
        std::shared_ptr<SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand> c =
            std::make_shared<SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand>();
-        if (!(in >> c->id)) { return nullptr; }
+        BuildingId id = 0;
+        if (!(in >> id)) { return nullptr; }
+        c->id = id;
        parseFilters(in, c->filterA, c->filterB, ok);
        if (!ok) { return nullptr; }
        return c;
--- a/src/lib/sim/Simulation.cpp
+++ b/src/lib/sim/Simulation.cpp
@@ -40,7 +40,6 @@ Simulation::Simulation(GameConfig config, unsigned int seed)
    , m_nextBuildingId(1)
    , m_buildingBlocksStock(m_config.world.startingBuildingBlocks)
    , m_gameOver(false)
-    , m_hqBuildingId(kInvalidBuildingId)
    , m_hqProxyEntity(entt::null)
    , m_playerStation1Entity(entt::null)
    , m_playerStation2Entity(entt::null)
@@ -137,7 +136,7 @@ void Simulation::reset(unsigned int seed)
    m_gameOver                      = false;
    m_isWon                         = false;
    m_artifactCount                 = 0;
-    m_hqBuildingId                  = kInvalidBuildingId;
+    m_hqBuildingId                  = std::nullopt;
    m_hqProxyEntity                 = entt::null;
    m_playerStation1Entity          = entt::null;
    m_playerStation2Entity          = entt::null;
@@ -217,11 +216,12 @@ void Simulation::apply(const Command& command)
    case CommandKind::PlaceBuilding:
    {
        const PlaceBuildingCommand& c = static_cast<const PlaceBuildingCommand&>(command);
-        const BuildingId id = tryPlaceBuilding(c.type, c.anchor, c.rotation);
-        if (id == kInvalidBuildingId)
+        const std::optional<BuildingId> placed = tryPlaceBuilding(c.type, c.anchor, c.rotation);
+        if (!placed.has_value())
        {
            break;
        }
+        const BuildingId id = *placed;
        if (c.recipeId.has_value())
        {
            m_buildingSystem->setRecipe(id, *c.recipeId);
@@ -237,31 +237,31 @@ void Simulation::apply(const Command& command)
        break;
    }
    case CommandKind::Demolish:
-        demolish(static_cast<const DemolishCommand&>(command).id);
+        demolish(*static_cast<const DemolishCommand&>(command).id);
        break;
    case CommandKind::RotateInPlace:
    {
        const RotateInPlaceCommand& c = static_cast<const RotateInPlaceCommand&>(command);
-        m_buildingSystem->rotateInPlace(c.id, c.newRotation);
+        m_buildingSystem->rotateInPlace(*c.id, c.newRotation);
        break;
    }
    case CommandKind::SetRecipe:
    {
        const SetRecipeCommand& c = static_cast<const SetRecipeCommand&>(command);
-        m_buildingSystem->setRecipe(c.id, c.recipeId);
+        m_buildingSystem->setRecipe(*c.id, c.recipeId);
        break;
    }
    case CommandKind::SetShipLayout:
    {
        const SetShipLayoutCommand& c = static_cast<const SetShipLayoutCommand&>(command);
-        m_buildingSystem->setShipLayout(c.id, c.layout);
+        m_buildingSystem->setShipLayout(*c.id, c.layout);
        break;
    }
    case CommandKind::SetSiteSplitterFilters:
    {
        const SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand& c =
            static_cast<const SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand&>(command);
-        m_buildingSystem->setSiteSplitterFilters(c.id, c.filterA, c.filterB);
+        m_buildingSystem->setSiteSplitterFilters(*c.id, c.filterA, c.filterB);
        break;
    }
    case CommandKind::SetSplitterFilters:
@@ -1193,11 +1193,11 @@ bool Simulation::isModuleSchematicUnlocked(const std::string& moduleId) const
    return it->second.unlocked;
 }

-BuildingId Simulation::tryPlaceBuilding(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor, Rotation rotation)
+std::optional<BuildingId> Simulation::tryPlaceBuilding(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor, Rotation rotation)
 {
    if (!m_buildingSystem->isPlacementValid(type, anchor, rotation))
    {
-        return kInvalidBuildingId;
+        return std::nullopt;
    }

    int cost = 0;
@@ -1211,7 +1211,7 @@ BuildingId Simulation::tryPlaceBuilding(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor, Rotati
    }
    if (m_buildingBlocksStock < cost)
    {
-        return kInvalidBuildingId;
+        return std::nullopt;
    }
    m_buildingBlocksStock -= cost;
    return m_buildingSystem->place(type, anchor, rotation, m_currentTick);
--- a/src/lib/sim/Simulation.h
+++ b/src/lib/sim/Simulation.h
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@

 #include <map>
 #include <memory>
+#include <optional>
 #include <random>
 #include <set>
 #include <string>
@@ -131,8 +132,8 @@ private:
    // Reached during play exclusively via apply(); never called by UI/app code.

    // Checks affordability, deducts building blocks, and places the building.
-    // Returns the new entity id, or kInvalidBuildingId if blocks are insufficient.
-    BuildingId tryPlaceBuilding(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor, Rotation rotation);
+    // Returns the new entity id, or nullopt if blocks are insufficient.
+    std::optional<BuildingId> tryPlaceBuilding(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor, Rotation rotation);

    // Demolishes the building with the given id and refunds building blocks.
    void demolish(BuildingId id);
@@ -182,7 +183,7 @@ private:
    int      m_artifactCount = 0;

    // Pre-placed structure IDs.
-    BuildingId     m_hqBuildingId;           // Building id (for belt integration)
+    std::optional<BuildingId> m_hqBuildingId;  // Building id (for belt integration)
    entt::entity m_hqProxyEntity;          // ECS entity (HP, targeting)
    entt::entity m_playerStation1Entity;
    entt::entity m_playerStation2Entity;
--- a/src/test/BehaviorSystemTest.cpp
+++ b/src/test/BehaviorSystemTest.cpp
@@ -954,7 +954,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BehaviorSystem: full-cargo salvage ship moves toward SalvageBay", "[b
    Fixture f;

    const BuildingId bayId = f.buildings.place(BuildingType::SalvageBay,
-                                              QPoint(-4, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+                                              QPoint(-4, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    Tick t = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < 500; ++i)
    {
@@ -989,7 +989,7 @@ TEST_CASE("SalvagerSystem: full-cargo ship at its SalvageBay hands over cargo",
    Fixture f;

    const BuildingId bayId = f.buildings.place(BuildingType::SalvageBay,
-                                              QPoint(-4, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+                                              QPoint(-4, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    Tick t = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < 500; ++i)
    {
--- a/src/test/BlueprintTest.cpp
+++ b/src/test/BlueprintTest.cpp
@@ -527,9 +527,9 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint placement: buildings land at anchor + offset from cursor",
    const QPoint offsetB( 1, 0);

    const BuildingId idA = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,
-        BuildingType::Belt, cursor + offsetA, Rotation::East);
+        BuildingType::Belt, cursor + offsetA, Rotation::East).value();
    const BuildingId idB = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,
-        BuildingType::Belt, cursor + offsetB, Rotation::East);
+        BuildingType::Belt, cursor + offsetB, Rotation::East).value();

    REQUIRE(idA != kInvalidBuildingId);
    REQUIRE(idB != kInvalidBuildingId);
@@ -583,11 +583,11 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint placement: insufficient blocks returns kInvalidBuildingId a
    }

    const int blocksBeforeAttempt = sim.getBuildingBlocksStock();
-    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,
+    const std::optional<BuildingId> id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,
        BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(col - 2, 0), Rotation::East);

    // Placement must fail and leave the stock unchanged.
-    REQUIRE(id == kInvalidBuildingId);
+    REQUIRE_FALSE(id.has_value());
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildingBlocksStock() == blocksBeforeAttempt);
 }

@@ -599,10 +599,10 @@ TEST_CASE("Simulation: tryPlaceBuilding rejects terrain-invalid placement and ch

    // A miner is all-asteroid; placing it in space (x >= 0) violates the terrain
    // rule, so it must be rejected without consuming building blocks.
-    const BuildingId id =
+    const std::optional<BuildingId> id =
        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East);

-    REQUIRE(id == kInvalidBuildingId);
+    REQUIRE_FALSE(id.has_value());
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildingBlocksStock() == startBlocks);
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildings().getAllSites().empty());
 }
@@ -623,7 +623,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Simulation: tryPlaceBuilding accepts a valid asteroid spot, occupies
    // Miner mask ["AA","A>"] East at (-3,0) → all-asteroid body at
    // (-3,0),(-2,0),(-3,1); a valid spot.
    const BuildingId id =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East).value();

    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildingBlocksStock() == startBlocks - minerCost);
@@ -666,7 +666,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint placement: setRecipe on construction site stores recipe", "
    Simulation sim(loadConfig());

    // Miner body cells: (0,0),(1,0),(0,1) — all at x < 0, valid for asteroid.
-    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East);
+    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);

    SimulationTestAccess::buildings(sim).setRecipe(id, "mine_iron_ore");
@@ -681,7 +681,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint placement: recipe transfers to building after construction
 {
    Simulation sim(loadConfig());

-    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East);
+    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
    SimulationTestAccess::buildings(sim).setRecipe(id, "mine_copper_ore");

@@ -710,7 +710,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint creation: a construction site is captured", "[blueprint]")
    // Freshly placed → a ConstructionSite (not ticked to completion). A 1x1 belt keeps
    // the body-cell bounding-box centered on the anchor, so a single site → zero offset.
    const BuildingId id =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildings().findSite(id) != nullptr);
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildings().findBuilding(id) == nullptr);
@@ -727,7 +727,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint creation: a construction site's recipe is captured", "[blue
    Simulation sim(loadConfig());

    const BuildingId id =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
    SimulationTestAccess::buildings(sim).setRecipe(id, "mine_iron_ore");

@@ -744,7 +744,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint creation: mixed operational building and construction site

    // Building A: place, configure, and tick to completion so it is operational.
    const BuildingId idA =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(idA != kInvalidBuildingId);
    SimulationTestAccess::buildings(sim).setRecipe(idA, "mine_iron_ore");
    for (int i = 0; i <= static_cast<int>(secondsToTicks(10.0)); ++i) { sim.tick(); }
@@ -752,7 +752,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint creation: mixed operational building and construction site

    // Building B: place and configure, but leave as a construction site.
    const BuildingId idB =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-6, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-6, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(idB != kInvalidBuildingId);
    SimulationTestAccess::buildings(sim).setRecipe(idB, "mine_copper_ore");
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildings().findSite(idB) != nullptr);
@@ -777,7 +777,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint creation: selectionHasPlaceableBuilding sees a construction
    REQUIRE_FALSE(selectionHasPlaceableBuilding(sim, {}));

    const BuildingId id =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildings().findSite(id) != nullptr);
    REQUIRE(selectionHasPlaceableBuilding(sim, { id }));
@@ -847,7 +847,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint placement: setShipLayout on construction site stores layout
    // Shipyard surface_mask ["AAAS>","AAAS "] with Rotation::East:
    // A-tiles at (-3,0),(-2,0),(-1,0),(-3,1),(-2,1),(-1,1) — all x < 0, valid asteroid tiles.
    // S-tile at (0,0) and (0,1) — x >= 0, valid space tiles.
-    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Shipyard, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East);
+    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Shipyard, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);

    ShipLayoutConfig layout;
@@ -871,7 +871,7 @@ TEST_CASE("Blueprint placement: ship layout transfers to building after construc
 {
    Simulation sim(loadConfig());

-    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Shipyard, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East);
+    const BuildingId id = SimulationTestAccess::place(sim,BuildingType::Shipyard, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);

    ShipLayoutConfig layout;
--- a/src/test/BuildingConfigTest.cpp
+++ b/src/test/BuildingConfigTest.cpp
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ TEST_CASE("readBuildingConfig reads a queued construction site", "[copyconfig]")

    // A placed miner enters the construction queue as a site (not yet operational).
    const BuildingId id =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(sim, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildings().findBuilding(id) == nullptr);
    REQUIRE(sim.getBuildings().findSite(id) != nullptr);
--- a/src/test/BuildingTest.cpp
+++ b/src/test/BuildingTest.cpp
@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: place miner occupies expected body tiles", "[building
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);

    // Miner mask ["AA","A>"] with East rotation → body at (0,0),(1,0),(0,1).
@@ -138,8 +138,8 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: place rejects a building above the world (y < 0)", "[

    // Miner mask ["AA","A>"] East → body at (0,0),(1,0),(0,1); at y=-1 the top
    // row sits above the world.
-    const BuildingId id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, -1), Rotation::East, 0);
-    REQUIRE(id == kInvalidBuildingId);
+    const std::optional<BuildingId> id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, -1), Rotation::East, 0);
+    REQUIRE_FALSE(id.has_value());
    REQUIRE(f.bs.getAllSites().empty());
    REQUIRE_FALSE(f.bs.isTileOccupied(QPoint(0, 0)));
 }
@@ -151,9 +151,9 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: place rejects a building below the world (y >= height

    // Anchored on the last in-bounds row, the miner's lower body row reaches
    // y == heightTiles, which is outside the world.
-    const BuildingId id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Miner,
+    const std::optional<BuildingId> id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Miner,
                                     QPoint(0, heightTiles - 1), Rotation::East, 0);
-    REQUIRE(id == kInvalidBuildingId);
+    REQUIRE_FALSE(id.has_value());
    REQUIRE(f.bs.getAllSites().empty());
 }

@@ -162,9 +162,9 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: place rejects a building left of the asteroid edge",
    PlacementFixture f;
    const int leftEdgeX = -f.cfg.world.regions.asteroidWidth_tiles;

-    const BuildingId id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Miner,
+    const std::optional<BuildingId> id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Miner,
                                     QPoint(leftEdgeX - 1, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
-    REQUIRE(id == kInvalidBuildingId);
+    REQUIRE_FALSE(id.has_value());
    REQUIRE(f.bs.getAllSites().empty());
 }

@@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: place accepts a building flush against the world's le

    // Miner body min relative x is 0, so its leftmost cell sits exactly on the edge.
    const BuildingId id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Miner,
-                                     QPoint(leftEdgeX, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+                                     QPoint(leftEdgeX, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
    REQUIRE(f.bs.isTileOccupied(QPoint(leftEdgeX, 0)));
 }
@@ -187,7 +187,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: place imposes no right-side bound (space extends righ
    PlacementFixture f;

    const BuildingId id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Miner,
-                                     QPoint(1000, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+                                     QPoint(1000, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
 }

@@ -256,7 +256,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: placed building enters construction queue", "[buildin
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    REQUIRE(bs.getAllSites().size() == 1);
    REQUIRE(bs.getAllBuildings().empty());
@@ -277,7 +277,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: demolish frees tiles and returns refund", "[building]
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

 	// Miner construction_time_seconds = 10.  completesAt = secondsToTicks(10) = 300.
 	// We need to process tick 300 itself, so run 301 ticks (ticks 0..300).
@@ -351,7 +351,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: construction completes after configured duration", "[
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    // Miner construction_time_seconds = 10.  completesAt = secondsToTicks(10) = 300.
    // We need to process tick 300 itself, so run 301 ticks (ticks 0..300).
@@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: second building starts after first completes", "[buil
                      rng);

    bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
-    const BuildingId id2 = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(5, 5), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id2 = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(5, 5), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    // Process through tick 300 to complete first miner's construction.
    Tick tick = 0;
@@ -406,7 +406,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: miner produces iron_ore after recipe duration", "[bui
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    bs.setRecipe(id, "mine_iron_ore");

    Tick tick = 0;
@@ -439,7 +439,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: miner output buffer stalls when full", "[building]")
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    bs.setRecipe(id, "mine_iron_ore");

    Tick tick = 0;
@@ -479,8 +479,8 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: productionBuildingCount excludes construction sites",
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId minerId   = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner,   QPoint(0, 0),  Rotation::East, 0);
-    const BuildingId smelterId = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(10, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId minerId   = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner,   QPoint(0, 0),  Rotation::East, 0).value();
+    const BuildingId smelterId = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(10, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    (void)smelterId;

    Tick tick = 0;
@@ -519,7 +519,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: activeProductionBuildingCount tracks production cycle
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    bs.setRecipe(id, "mine_iron_ore");

    Tick tick = 0;
@@ -563,7 +563,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: smelter input buffer fills from adjacent west-flowing

    // Smelter mask ["AA ","AA>"] → body (0,0),(1,0),(0,1),(1,1).
    // Output port (2,1) East.  Input port example: (2,0) West.
-    const BuildingId sid = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId sid = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    // Smelters have no recipe selection (REQ-BLD-SMELTER); they auto-accept any
    // ore/scrap that is an input to a smelter recipe.

@@ -603,7 +603,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: accepted input travels inward before entering the buf
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId sid = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId sid = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    Tick tick = 0;
    runTicks(bs, belts, static_cast<int>(secondsToTicks(15.0)) + 1, tick);

@@ -645,7 +645,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: input reservation caps buffered plus in-transit at th
                      rng);

    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::ReprocessingPlant,
-                                  QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+                                  QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    Tick tick = 0;
    runTicks(bs, belts, static_cast<int>(secondsToTicks(25.0)) + 1, tick);

@@ -686,7 +686,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: smelter auto-smelts ore without a recipe selection",
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId sid = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId sid = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    Tick tick = 0;
    runTicks(bs, belts, static_cast<int>(secondsToTicks(15.0)) + 1, tick);
@@ -732,7 +732,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: smelter runs a satisfiable recipe while an incomplete
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId sid = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId sid = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    Tick tick = 0;
    runTicks(bs, belts, static_cast<int>(secondsToTicks(15.0)) + 1, tick);
@@ -786,7 +786,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: miner output buffer drains onto adjacent belt", "[bui
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    bs.setRecipe(id, "mine_iron_ore");

    // Belt at the miner's output port tile (1,1) flowing East.
@@ -826,12 +826,12 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: output port couples directly into an adjacent input p
                      rng);

    // Miner at (0,0): body (0,0),(1,0),(0,1); output port tile (1,1) flowing East.
-    const BuildingId minerId = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId minerId = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    bs.setRecipe(minerId, "mine_iron_ore");
    // Smelter anchored at (1,1): body (1,1),(2,1),(1,2),(2,2). Its body cell (1,1) is
    // the miner's output-port tile, and its west input edge there faces East, so the
    // two ports meet — no belt placed anywhere.
-    const BuildingId smelterId = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(1, 1), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId smelterId = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(1, 1), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    Tick tick = 0;
    // Smelter build (15s) + margin for coupling and a smelt cycle.
@@ -866,11 +866,11 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: direct coupling to a non-consumer leaves the item stu
                      rng);

    // Producing miner at (0,0), output port (1,1) East.
-    const BuildingId minerId = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId minerId = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    bs.setRecipe(minerId, "mine_iron_ore");
    // A second, idle miner anchored at (1,1) occupies the output-port tile but takes
    // no inputs, so it cannot accept the iron_ore.
-    const BuildingId sinkId = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(1, 1), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId sinkId = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(1, 1), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    Tick tick = 0;
    // Both miners build sequentially (10s each), then the producer runs and jams.
@@ -904,7 +904,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: setRecipe clears output buffer and active production"
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    bs.setRecipe(id, "mine_iron_ore");

    Tick tick = 0;
@@ -948,7 +948,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: reprocessing plant output buffer capacity equals max
                      rng);

    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::ReprocessingPlant,
-                                  QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+                                  QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    // Reprocessing plants have no recipe selection (REQ-BLD-REPROCESSING); the
    // single reprocessing recipe is applied automatically on completion.

@@ -980,7 +980,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: reprocessing plant produces one cycle output then sta
                      rng);

    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::ReprocessingPlant,
-                                  QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+                                  QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    // Reprocessing plants have no recipe selection (REQ-BLD-REPROCESSING); the
    // single reprocessing recipe is applied automatically on completion.

@@ -1056,7 +1056,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: findRotateInPlaceTarget returns the site id for a que
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    const std::optional<BuildingId> result =
        bs.findRotateInPlaceTarget(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::North);
@@ -1079,7 +1079,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: findRotateInPlaceTarget returns the building id for a
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    Tick tick = 0;
    runTicks(bs, belts, static_cast<int>(secondsToTicks(1.0)) + 1, tick);
@@ -1154,7 +1154,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: findRotateInPlaceTarget works for a symmetric multi-t

    // Smelter is a fully filled 2×2 footprint — rotating the ghost produces the
    // same four body tiles, so findRotateInPlaceTarget must still return the id.
-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    const std::optional<BuildingId> result =
        bs.findRotateInPlaceTarget(BuildingType::Smelter, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::North);
@@ -1181,7 +1181,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: rotateInPlace updates the rotation field of a constru
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    REQUIRE(bs.findSite(id)->rotation == Rotation::East);

    bs.rotateInPlace(id, Rotation::North);
@@ -1204,7 +1204,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: rotateInPlace preserves the construction progress of
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();
    const Tick completesAt = bs.findSite(id)->completesAt;
    REQUIRE(completesAt > 0);

@@ -1228,7 +1228,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: rotateInPlace updates rotation and output port direct
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    Tick tick = 0;
    runTicks(bs, belts, static_cast<int>(secondsToTicks(1.0)) + 1, tick);
@@ -1259,7 +1259,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: rotateInPlace re-registers a belt tile with BeltSyste
                      [](const std::string&) -> bool { return true; },
                      rng);

-    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = bs.place(BuildingType::Belt, QPoint(0, 0), Rotation::East, 0).value();

    Tick tick = 0;
    runTicks(bs, belts, static_cast<int>(secondsToTicks(1.0)) + 1, tick);
@@ -1276,7 +1276,7 @@ TEST_CASE("BuildingSystem: splitter filters configured on a construction site ca
    PlacementFixture f;

    const QPoint tile(5, 5);
-    const BuildingId id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Splitter, tile, Rotation::East, 0);
+    const BuildingId id = f.bs.place(BuildingType::Splitter, tile, Rotation::East, 0).value();
    REQUIRE(id != kInvalidBuildingId);
    REQUIRE(f.bs.findSite(id) != nullptr);

--- a/src/test/CommandTest.cpp
+++ b/src/test/CommandTest.cpp
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ TEST_CASE("apply(PlaceBuildingCommand) with recipe matches place-then-setRecipe"
    viaCommand.apply(command);

    const BuildingId id =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(viaDirect, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(viaDirect, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-2, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    SimulationTestAccess::buildings(viaDirect).setRecipe(id, "mine_iron_ore");

    REQUIRE(viaCommand.computeStateChecksum() == viaDirect.computeStateChecksum());
@@ -64,9 +64,9 @@ TEST_CASE("apply(DemolishCommand) matches direct demolish", "[command]")
    Simulation viaDirect(loadConfig(), 99);

    const BuildingId idA =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(viaCommand, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(viaCommand, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    const BuildingId idB =
-        SimulationTestAccess::place(viaDirect, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East);
+        SimulationTestAccess::place(viaDirect, BuildingType::Miner, QPoint(-3, 0), Rotation::East).value();
    REQUIRE(idA == idB);

    DemolishCommand command;
--- a/src/test/ShipTest.cpp
+++ b/src/test/ShipTest.cpp
@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ TEST_CASE("ShipSystem: salvage_ship cargo capacity matches config", "[ship]")
    // Cargo capacity is now a ship-level pool (REQ-MOD-CARGO-CAPACITY).
    REQUIRE(admin.get<CargoComponent>(e).maxCapacity == 10);
    REQUIRE(admin.get<CargoComponent>(e).current     == 0);
-    REQUIRE(admin.get<DeliverScrapBehavior>(e).deliveryBay == kInvalidBuildingId);
+    REQUIRE_FALSE(admin.get<DeliverScrapBehavior>(e).deliveryBay.has_value());
    REQUIRE_FALSE(admin.get<SalvageScrapBehavior>(e).scrapTarget.has_value());
    REQUIRE(admin.get<SalvageScrapBehavior>(e).maxCollectionRange_tiles == Approx(50.0f));
 }
--- a/src/test/SimulationTestAccess.h
+++ b/src/test/SimulationTestAccess.h
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 #pragma once

+#include <optional>
+
 #include <QPoint>

 #include "BuildingId.h"
@@ -25,8 +27,8 @@ struct SimulationTestAccess
    static BuildingSystem& buildings(Simulation& sim) { return sim.getBuildingsMutable(); }
    static BeltSystem&     belts(Simulation& sim)     { return sim.getBeltsMutable(); }

-    static BuildingId place(Simulation& sim, BuildingType type, QPoint anchor,
-                            Rotation rotation)
+    static std::optional<BuildingId> place(Simulation& sim, BuildingType type,
+                                           QPoint anchor, Rotation rotation)
    {
        return sim.tryPlaceBuilding(type, anchor, rotation);
    }
--- a/src/ui/BlueprintPanel.cpp
+++ b/src/ui/BlueprintPanel.cpp
@@ -28,7 +28,6 @@ BlueprintPanel::BlueprintPanel(Simulation* sim, const GameConfig* config, QWidge
    , m_sim(sim)
    , m_config(config)
    , m_currentBlocks(0)
-    , m_activeIndex(-1)
 {
    QVBoxLayout* layout = new QVBoxLayout(this);
    layout->setContentsMargins(4, 4, 4, 4);
@@ -80,11 +79,11 @@ void BlueprintPanel::handleEvent(std::shared_ptr<const BuildingBlocksChangedEven

 void BlueprintPanel::clearActiveBlueprintButton()
 {
-    if (m_activeIndex >= 0 && m_activeIndex < static_cast<int>(m_blueprintButtons.size()))
+    if (m_activeIndex.has_value() && *m_activeIndex < static_cast<int>(m_blueprintButtons.size()))
    {
-        m_blueprintButtons[static_cast<std::size_t>(m_activeIndex)]->setChecked(false);
+        m_blueprintButtons[static_cast<std::size_t>(*m_activeIndex)]->setChecked(false);
    }
-    m_activeIndex = -1;
+    m_activeIndex = std::nullopt;
    refreshButtonStates();
 }

@@ -109,13 +108,13 @@ void BlueprintPanel::onDeleteBlueprintClicked(int index)
 {
    if (m_activeIndex == index)
    {
-        m_activeIndex = -1;
+        m_activeIndex = std::nullopt;
        EventManager::getInstance()->sendEventImmediately(
            std::make_shared<ExitBlueprintModeRequestedEvent>());
    }
-    else if (m_activeIndex > index)
+    else if (m_activeIndex.has_value() && *m_activeIndex > index)
    {
-        m_activeIndex--;
+        --*m_activeIndex;
    }
    m_blueprints.erase(m_blueprints.begin() + index);
    rebuildButtons();
@@ -133,9 +132,9 @@ void BlueprintPanel::onBlueprintButtonClicked(int index)
        return;
    }

-    if (m_activeIndex >= 0 && m_activeIndex < static_cast<int>(m_blueprintButtons.size()))
+    if (m_activeIndex.has_value() && *m_activeIndex < static_cast<int>(m_blueprintButtons.size()))
    {
-        m_blueprintButtons[static_cast<std::size_t>(m_activeIndex)]->setChecked(false);
+        m_blueprintButtons[static_cast<std::size_t>(*m_activeIndex)]->setChecked(false);
    }

    m_activeIndex = index;
--- a/src/ui/BlueprintPanel.h
+++ b/src/ui/BlueprintPanel.h
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #pragma once

+#include <optional>
 #include <vector>

 #include <QWidget>
@@ -56,7 +57,7 @@ private:
    const GameConfig*         m_config;
    std::vector<BuildingId>     m_selectedBuildingIds;
    int                       m_currentBlocks;
-    int                       m_activeIndex;
+    std::optional<int>        m_activeIndex;  // nullopt = no blueprint selected
    std::vector<Blueprint>    m_blueprints;
    std::vector<QPushButton*> m_blueprintButtons;
    QPushButton*              m_createBtn;
--- a/src/ui/GameWorldView.cpp
+++ b/src/ui/GameWorldView.cpp
@@ -142,7 +142,6 @@ GameWorldView::GameWorldView(Simulation* sim, const GameConfig* config,
    , m_ghostValid(false)
    , m_dragging(false)
    , m_demolishMode(false)
-    , m_demolishHoverBuildingId(kInvalidBuildingId)
    , m_debugDraw(false)
    , m_rng(std::random_device{}())
    , m_boxSelecting(false)
@@ -621,34 +620,34 @@ bool GameWorldView::isValidPlacement(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor,
    return true;
 }

-BuildingId GameWorldView::buildingAtTile(QPoint tile) const
+std::optional<BuildingId> GameWorldView::buildingAtTile(QPoint tile) const
 {
    for (const Building& b : m_sim->getBuildings().getAllBuildings())
    {
        for (const QPoint& cell : b.bodyCells)
        {
-            if (cell == tile) 
-			{ 
-				return b.id; 
+            if (cell == tile)
+			{
+				return b.id;
 			}
        }
    }
-    return kInvalidBuildingId;
+    return std::nullopt;
 }

-BuildingId GameWorldView::siteAtTile(QPoint tile) const
+std::optional<BuildingId> GameWorldView::siteAtTile(QPoint tile) const
 {
 	for (const ConstructionSite& s : m_sim->getBuildings().getAllSites())
 	{
 		for (const QPoint& cell : s.bodyCells)
 		{
-			if (cell == tile) 
+			if (cell == tile)
 			{
-				return s.id; 
+				return s.id;
 			}
 		}
 	}
-	return kInvalidBuildingId;
+	return std::nullopt;
 }


@@ -1606,9 +1605,9 @@ void GameWorldView::drawOverlays(QPainter& painter)
            }
        }
    }
-    else if (m_demolishMode && m_demolishHoverBuildingId != kInvalidBuildingId)
+    else if (m_demolishMode && m_demolishHoverBuildingId.has_value())
    {
-        const Building* b = m_sim->getBuildings().findBuilding(m_demolishHoverBuildingId);
+        const Building* b = m_sim->getBuildings().findBuilding(*m_demolishHoverBuildingId);
        if (b)
        {
            for (const QPoint& cell : b->bodyCells)
@@ -1961,9 +1960,9 @@ void GameWorldView::mousePressEvent(QMouseEvent* event)
                // Shift + right-click copies a building's settings, but only in the
                // default selection mode (REQ-BLD-COPY-CONFIG).
                const QPoint tile = widgetToTile(event->pos());
-                BuildingId id = buildingAtTile(tile);
-                if (id == kInvalidBuildingId) { id = siteAtTile(tile); }
-                if (id != kInvalidBuildingId) { copyConfigFrom(id); }
+                std::optional<BuildingId> id = buildingAtTile(tile);
+                if (!id.has_value()) { id = siteAtTile(tile); }
+                if (id.has_value()) { copyConfigFrom(*id); }
            }
        }
        return;
@@ -2004,11 +2003,11 @@ void GameWorldView::mousePressEvent(QMouseEvent* event)
        // selection. Only active in the default selection mode.
        if ((event->modifiers() & Qt::ShiftModifier) && m_copiedConfig.has_value())
        {
-            BuildingId id = buildingAtTile(tile);
-            if (id == kInvalidBuildingId) { id = siteAtTile(tile); }
-            if (id != kInvalidBuildingId)
+            std::optional<BuildingId> id = buildingAtTile(tile);
+            if (!id.has_value()) { id = siteAtTile(tile); }
+            if (id.has_value())
            {
-                pasteConfigTo(id);
+                pasteConfigTo(*id);
                return;
            }
        }
@@ -2036,13 +2035,14 @@ void GameWorldView::mousePressEvent(QMouseEvent* event)
                    std::make_shared<EntitySelectedEvent>(std::nullopt));
            }

-            BuildingId id = buildingAtTile(tile);
-            if (id == kInvalidBuildingId)
+            std::optional<BuildingId> hit = buildingAtTile(tile);
+            if (!hit.has_value())
            {
-                id = siteAtTile(tile);
+                hit = siteAtTile(tile);
            }
-            if (id != kInvalidBuildingId)
+            if (hit.has_value())
            {
+                const BuildingId id = *hit;
                // A building/construction site outranks scrap (REQ-UI-SCRAP-CLICK-SELECT).
                clearScrapSelection();
                if (event->modifiers() & Qt::ControlModifier)
@@ -2170,7 +2170,7 @@ void GameWorldView::mouseReleaseEvent(QMouseEvent* event)
                command->id = id;
                enqueueCommand(command);
            }
-            m_demolishHoverBuildingId = kInvalidBuildingId;
+            m_demolishHoverBuildingId = std::nullopt;
            return;
        }

@@ -2255,7 +2255,7 @@ void GameWorldView::toggleDemolishMode()
    if (m_demolishMode)
    {
        m_demolishMode    = false;
-        m_demolishHoverBuildingId = kInvalidBuildingId;
+        m_demolishHoverBuildingId = std::nullopt;
    }
    else
    {
@@ -2451,7 +2451,7 @@ void GameWorldView::resetForNewGame()
    m_ghostRotation    = Rotation::East;
    m_ghostValid       = false;
    m_demolishMode     = false;
-    m_demolishHoverBuildingId  = kInvalidBuildingId;
+    m_demolishHoverBuildingId  = std::nullopt;
    EventManager::getInstance()->sendEventImmediately(
        std::make_shared<DemolishModeChangedEvent>(false));
    m_selectedBuildingIds.clear();
--- a/src/ui/GameWorldView.h
+++ b/src/ui/GameWorldView.h
@@ -168,8 +168,8 @@ private:

    bool     isValidPlacement(BuildingType type, QPoint anchor, Rotation rot) const;
    const BuildingDef* findBuildingDef(BuildingType type) const;
-    BuildingId buildingAtTile(QPoint tile) const;
-    BuildingId siteAtTile(QPoint tile) const;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> buildingAtTile(QPoint tile) const;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> siteAtTile(QPoint tile) const;
    // Ids of all buildings and construction sites whose footprint intersects
    // the tile box spanned by the two (unordered) corner tiles.
    std::vector<BuildingId> buildingsInBox(QPoint cornerA, QPoint cornerB) const;
@@ -268,7 +268,7 @@ private:
    static constexpr qint64      kCopyFlashDurationMs = 300;

    bool     m_demolishMode;
-    BuildingId m_demolishHoverBuildingId;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> m_demolishHoverBuildingId;
    bool     m_debugDraw;

    std::vector<BuildingId> m_selectedBuildingIds;
--- a/src/ui/SelectedBuildingPanel.cpp
+++ b/src/ui/SelectedBuildingPanel.cpp
@@ -131,7 +131,6 @@ SelectedBuildingPanel::SelectedBuildingPanel(Simulation* sim,
    : QWidget(parent)
    , m_sim(sim)
    , m_config(config)
-    , m_singleBuildingId(kInvalidBuildingId)
    , m_splitterTile(0, 0)
 {
    m_layout = new QVBoxLayout(this);
@@ -170,10 +169,10 @@ SelectedBuildingPanel::SelectedBuildingPanel(Simulation* sim,
    connect(m_clearBeltBtn, &QPushButton::clicked,
            this, &SelectedBuildingPanel::onClearBelt);
    connect(m_configureLayoutBtn, &QPushButton::clicked, this, [this]() {
-        if (m_singleBuildingId != kInvalidBuildingId)
+        if (m_singleBuildingId.has_value())
        {
            EventManager::getInstance()->sendEventImmediately(
-                std::make_shared<LayoutDialogRequestedEvent>(m_singleBuildingId));
+                std::make_shared<LayoutDialogRequestedEvent>(*m_singleBuildingId));
        }
    });
    connect(m_filterAList, &QListWidget::itemChanged,
@@ -257,7 +256,7 @@ void SelectedBuildingPanel::hideAllWidgets()

 void SelectedBuildingPanel::clearContent()
 {
-    m_singleBuildingId = kInvalidBuildingId;
+    m_singleBuildingId = std::nullopt;
    hideAllWidgets();
 }

@@ -672,8 +671,8 @@ void SelectedBuildingPanel::refreshSelectionDisplay(RefreshReason reason)
        return;
    }

-    if (m_singleBuildingId == kInvalidBuildingId) { return; }
-    const Building* b = m_sim->getBuildings().findBuilding(m_singleBuildingId);
+    if (!m_singleBuildingId.has_value()) { return; }
+    const Building* b = m_sim->getBuildings().findBuilding(*m_singleBuildingId);
    if (b)
    {
        if (m_titleLabel->text().startsWith(tr("(Building) ")))
@@ -686,7 +685,7 @@ void SelectedBuildingPanel::refreshSelectionDisplay(RefreshReason reason)
        }
        return;
    }
-    const ConstructionSite* s = m_sim->getBuildings().findSite(m_singleBuildingId);
+    const ConstructionSite* s = m_sim->getBuildings().findSite(*m_singleBuildingId);
    if (s)
    {
        // A periodic tick only advances construction progress, so update just the
@@ -708,7 +707,7 @@ void SelectedBuildingPanel::refreshSelectionDisplay(RefreshReason reason)

 void SelectedBuildingPanel::buildMulti(const std::vector<BuildingId>& ids)
 {
-    m_singleBuildingId = kInvalidBuildingId;
+    m_singleBuildingId = std::nullopt;
    m_recipeSelectButton->hide();
    m_clearBeltBtn->hide();
    m_filterALabel->hide();
@@ -764,7 +763,7 @@ void SelectedBuildingPanel::buildMulti(const std::vector<BuildingId>& ids)

 void SelectedBuildingPanel::onSelectRecipeClicked()
 {
-    if (m_singleBuildingId == kInvalidBuildingId)
+    if (!m_singleBuildingId.has_value())
    {
        return;
    }
@@ -775,7 +774,7 @@ void SelectedBuildingPanel::onSelectRecipeClicked()
    // refreshBuffers() path picks up the new schematic (and shows the layout
    // preview + Configure Layout button) once the command has been applied.
    EventManager::getInstance()->sendEventImmediately(
-        std::make_shared<RecipeSelectionRequestedEvent>(m_singleBuildingId));
+        std::make_shared<RecipeSelectionRequestedEvent>(*m_singleBuildingId));
    rebuild();
 }

@@ -825,7 +824,7 @@ void SelectedBuildingPanel::buildSplitterFilters(

 void SelectedBuildingPanel::onSplitterFilterChanged()
 {
-    if (m_singleBuildingId == kInvalidBuildingId)
+    if (!m_singleBuildingId.has_value())
    {
        return;
    }
@@ -848,7 +847,7 @@ void SelectedBuildingPanel::onSplitterFilterChanged()
    {
        std::shared_ptr<SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand> command =
            std::make_shared<SetSiteSplitterFiltersCommand>();
-        command->id      = m_singleBuildingId;
+        command->id      = *m_singleBuildingId;
        command->filterA = collectFilter(m_filterAList);
        command->filterB = collectFilter(m_filterBList);
        EventManager::getInstance()->sendEventImmediately(
--- a/src/ui/SelectedBuildingPanel.h
+++ b/src/ui/SelectedBuildingPanel.h
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ private:
    ShipLayoutPreview* m_layoutPreview;
    QPushButton*       m_configureLayoutBtn;

-    BuildingId     m_singleBuildingId;
+    std::optional<BuildingId> m_singleBuildingId;
    bool         m_singleIsSite = false;  // selected single entity is a construction site
    QPoint       m_splitterTile;
    std::string  m_currentRecipeId;
--- a/src/ui/ShipLayoutDialog.cpp
+++ b/src/ui/ShipLayoutDialog.cpp
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ public:
        setFixedSize(cols * kCellSize + 1, rows * kCellSize + 1);
    }

-    void setGhostData(int moduleIndex, Rotation rotation)
+    void setGhostData(std::optional<int> moduleIndex, Rotation rotation)
    {
        m_ghostModuleIdx = moduleIndex;
        m_ghostRotation = rotation;
@@ -111,9 +111,9 @@ protected:
                {
                    painter.fillRect(cellRect, QColor(30, 30, 30));
                }
-                else if (cell.moduleIndex >= 0)
+                else if (cell.moduleIndex.has_value())
                {
-                    const PlacedModule& pm = (*m_placed)[cell.moduleIndex];
+                    const PlacedModule& pm = (*m_placed)[*cell.moduleIndex];
                    const ModuleDef* def = findModule(pm.moduleId);
                    QColor color(Qt::gray);
                    QString glyph;
@@ -140,9 +140,9 @@ protected:
        }

        // Draw ghost
-        if (m_ghostModuleIdx >= 0 && m_hoverCell.x() >= 0 && m_config)
+        if (m_ghostModuleIdx.has_value() && m_hoverCell.x() >= 0 && m_config)
        {
-            const ModuleDef& def = m_config->modules.modules[m_ghostModuleIdx];
+            const ModuleDef& def = m_config->modules.modules[*m_ghostModuleIdx];
            const std::vector<std::string> mask = rotateMask(def.surfaceMask, m_ghostRotation);
            QColor ghostColor(QString::fromStdString(def.fillColor));
            ghostColor.setAlpha(100);
@@ -238,7 +238,7 @@ private:
    int m_cols = 0;
    const std::vector<PlacedModule>* m_placed = nullptr;
    const GameConfig* m_config = nullptr;
-    int m_ghostModuleIdx = -2;
+    std::optional<int> m_ghostModuleIdx;
    Rotation m_ghostRotation = Rotation::East;
    QPoint m_hoverCell = QPoint(-1, -1);
 };
@@ -374,7 +374,6 @@ ShipLayoutDialog::ShipLayoutDialog(const GameConfig* config,
    , m_rows(0)
    , m_cols(0)
    , m_placedModules(currentLayout.placedModules)
-    , m_activeModuleIndex(-2)
    , m_currentRotation(Rotation::East)
    , m_removeButton(nullptr)
    , m_gridWidget(nullptr)
@@ -406,7 +405,7 @@ ShipLayoutDialog::ShipLayoutDialog(const GameConfig* config,
    }

    // Initialize grid.
-    m_grid.assign(m_rows, std::vector<CellInfo>(m_cols, {false, -1}));
+    m_grid.assign(m_rows, std::vector<CellInfo>(m_cols, {false, std::nullopt}));
    for (int r = 0; r < m_rows; ++r)
    {
        for (int c = 0; c < static_cast<int>(m_shipLayout[r].size()); ++c)
@@ -491,9 +490,9 @@ ShipLayoutDialog::ShipLayoutDialog(const GameConfig* config,
    }
    buttonGrid->addWidget(m_removeButton, row, 0, 1, kCols);
    connect(m_removeButton, &QPushButton::clicked, this, [this]() {
-        if (m_activeModuleIndex == -1)
+        if (m_removeMode)
        {
-            m_activeModuleIndex = -2;
+            m_removeMode = false;
            m_removeButton->setChecked(false);
        }
        else
@@ -502,7 +501,8 @@ ShipLayoutDialog::ShipLayoutDialog(const GameConfig* config,
            {
                if (btn) { btn->setChecked(false); }
            }
-            m_activeModuleIndex = -1;
+            m_activeModuleIndex = std::nullopt;
+            m_removeMode = true;
            m_removeButton->setChecked(true);
        }
        updateGridWidget();
@@ -540,20 +540,20 @@ ShipLayoutDialog::ShipLayoutDialog(const GameConfig* config,

    // Grid click handler.
    connect(this, &ShipLayoutDialog::gridCellClicked, this, [this](QPoint cell) {
-        if (m_activeModuleIndex == -2)
+        if (!m_removeMode && !m_activeModuleIndex.has_value())
        {
            return;
        }

-        if (m_activeModuleIndex == -1)
+        if (m_removeMode)
        {
            // Remove mode: find and remove module at cell.
            if (cell.y() >= 0 && cell.y() < m_rows && cell.x() >= 0 && cell.x() < m_cols)
            {
-                const int idx = m_grid[cell.y()][cell.x()].moduleIndex;
-                if (idx >= 0)
+                const std::optional<int> idx = m_grid[cell.y()][cell.x()].moduleIndex;
+                if (idx.has_value())
                {
-                    m_placedModules.erase(m_placedModules.begin() + idx);
+                    m_placedModules.erase(m_placedModules.begin() + *idx);
                    rebuildOccupancy();
                    updateGridWidget();
                    updateStats();
@@ -563,7 +563,7 @@ ShipLayoutDialog::ShipLayoutDialog(const GameConfig* config,
        }

        // Place module.
-        const ModuleDef& def = m_config->modules.modules[m_activeModuleIndex];
+        const ModuleDef& def = m_config->modules.modules[*m_activeModuleIndex];
        if (canPlaceModule(def, cell, m_currentRotation))
        {
            PlacedModule pm;
@@ -622,7 +622,7 @@ void ShipLayoutDialog::onModuleButtonClicked(int index)
    if (m_activeModuleIndex == index)
    {
        if (m_moduleButtons[index]) { m_moduleButtons[index]->setChecked(false); }
-        m_activeModuleIndex = -2;
+        m_activeModuleIndex = std::nullopt;
    }
    else
    {
@@ -631,6 +631,7 @@ void ShipLayoutDialog::onModuleButtonClicked(int index)
            if (m_moduleButtons[i]) { m_moduleButtons[i]->setChecked(i == index); }
        }
        m_removeButton->setChecked(false);
+        m_removeMode = false;
        m_activeModuleIndex = index;
    }
    updateGridWidget();
@@ -656,7 +657,7 @@ void ShipLayoutDialog::rebuildOccupancy()
    {
        for (int c = 0; c < m_cols; ++c)
        {
-            m_grid[r][c].moduleIndex = -1;
+            m_grid[r][c].moduleIndex = std::nullopt;
        }
    }

@@ -726,7 +727,7 @@ bool ShipLayoutDialog::canPlaceModule(const ModuleDef& def, QPoint position,
            {
                return false;
            }
-            if (m_grid[gr][gc].moduleIndex >= 0)
+            if (m_grid[gr][gc].moduleIndex.has_value())
            {
                return false;
            }
--- a/src/ui/ShipLayoutDialog.h
+++ b/src/ui/ShipLayoutDialog.h
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ public:
    struct CellInfo
    {
        bool buildable;
-        int moduleIndex; // -1 if empty
+        std::optional<int> moduleIndex;  // nullopt if empty
    };

 private:
@@ -69,7 +69,12 @@ private:
    std::vector<PlacedModule> m_placedModules;
    std::vector<std::vector<CellInfo>> m_grid;

-    int m_activeModuleIndex; // -1 = remove mode, -2 = no selection
+    // The module to place, as an index into config modules; nullopt when no
+    // module is selected for placement. m_removeMode is a separate mode in which
+    // clicking a cell removes the module there (mutually exclusive with a
+    // selected module).
+    std::optional<int> m_activeModuleIndex;
+    bool m_removeMode = false;
    Rotation m_currentRotation;

    std::vector<QPushButton*> m_moduleButtons;
--- a/src/ui/ShipLayoutPreview.cpp
+++ b/src/ui/ShipLayoutPreview.cpp
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ void ShipLayoutPreview::setShipAndLayout(const std::vector<std::string>& shipLay
        }
    }

-    m_grid.assign(m_rows, std::vector<CellInfo>(m_cols, {false, -1}));
+    m_grid.assign(m_rows, std::vector<CellInfo>(m_cols, {false, std::nullopt}));
    for (int r = 0; r < m_rows; ++r)
    {
        for (int c = 0; c < static_cast<int>(shipLayout[r].size()); ++c)
@@ -205,9 +205,9 @@ void ShipLayoutPreview::paintEvent(QPaintEvent* /*event*/)
            {
                painter.fillRect(cellRect, Qt::black);
            }
-            else if (cell.moduleIndex >= 0)
+            else if (cell.moduleIndex.has_value())
            {
-                const PlacedModule& pm = m_placedModules[cell.moduleIndex];
+                const PlacedModule& pm = m_placedModules[*cell.moduleIndex];
                const ModuleDef* def = findModuleDef(*m_modules, pm.moduleId);
                QColor color(Qt::gray);
                if (def)
--- a/src/ui/ShipLayoutPreview.h
+++ b/src/ui/ShipLayoutPreview.h
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #pragma once

+#include <optional>
 #include <string>
 #include <vector>

@@ -31,7 +32,7 @@ private:
    struct CellInfo
    {
        bool buildable;
-        int moduleIndex; // -1 if empty
+        std::optional<int> moduleIndex;  // nullopt if empty
    };

    std::vector<std::vector<CellInfo>> m_grid;